In school, one of the earliest things we learned was, 'Cé leis é?' and 'Is liomsa é.' as the answer. Is it correct to just say, 'liomsa' as an answer? I don't think I've ever heard just that said, but there must be a shorter acceptable response.

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Yeah I think you can simply say "liomsa".

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Is fearr Gaeilg na Gaeltaċta ná Gaeilg ar biṫ eile
Agus is í Gaeilg Ġaoṫ Doḃair is binne

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Since we don't get Irish in school here, just French, I have to ask:
What is the exact meaning of
Cé leis é? and Is liomsa é?

Q: Cé leis é ? "Who does it belong to?"
A: Is liomsa é. "'It's _mine_." or Liomsa "Me."

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Múinteoir Gaeilge - Irish Teacher
My "specialty" is Connemara Irish, particularly Cois Fhairrge dialect, but I can also speak Ulster and Munster Irish with native-level pronunciation.
Is fearr Gaeilge ḃriste ná Béarla cliste, cinnte, aċ i ḃfad níos fearr aríst í Gaeilge ḃinn ḃeo na nGaeltaċtaí.
Gaeilge Chonnacht (GC), go háraid Gaeilge Chois Fhairrge (GCF), Gaeilic Uladh (GU), Gaelainn na Mumhan (GM), agus Gaeilge an Chaighdeáin Oifigiúil (CO).

Ma chère Annabeth, est-ce que vous voulez que je vous l'explique en français, peut-être? (only joking)
What is being used here is what's known as a prepositional pronoun - in this case it is - le - which means with. Like any other preposition in Irish, it is declined. That means it changes its form according to the person it is being applied to.
liom - with me
leat - with you (second person singular)
leis - with him (or it if the word referred to is masculine)
léi - with her (or it if the word referred to is feminine)
linn - with us
libh - with you (second person plural)
leo - with them (masculine or feminine)
leis is also used when the definite article - the/an follows le
you also have what are known as emphatic forms of these which are there to reinforce or underline the person involved - it's MINE - not YOURS
Cé(who) leis(with him) é(it) ?- (the verb - is - is understood)
Is(Is) liomsa(with ME) é(it) (here 'sa' is added to liom to make it emphatic)

Agreed.

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It is recommended that you always wait for three to agree on a translation.
I speak Connemara Irish, and my input will often reflect that.
I will do an mp3 file on request for short translations.
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Liomsa is good, don't answer mise...

Merci beaucoup :P

I can't believe franc passed up the opportunity to compare it to the French, where the preposition "to" can be used in much the same way :

à qui est-ce?
c'est à lui
c'est à moi

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I'm not a native (or entirely fluent) speaker, so be sure to wait for confirmations/corrections, especially for tattoos.